Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344)
An Egyptian lament of chaos, often compared with the plagues, but from the wrong century
Found 1828 — Sold by Giovanni Anastasi to the Dutch government; first fully edited by Alan Gardiner (1909)
Where Unknown (probably Saqqara/Memphis region) (Netherlands)
Dates from Copy c. 1250 BCE; composition c. 1850–1700 BCE · New Kingdom copy of a Middle Kingdom text · Text predates the usual Exodus dates; copy is Ramesside
Now at Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden (Papyrus Leiden I 344 recto)
How Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) was found
Acquired on the antiquities market with no recorded findspot, probably from the Memphis–Saqqara area.
What it is
A damaged hieratic papyrus of 17 columns known as 'The Admonitions of Ipuwer'. A sage named Ipuwer describes Egypt turned upside down: the river is blood, servants have become rich, plague stalks the land, and the poor take the gold of the nobles.
Why it matters for the Bible
Lines such as 'the river is blood' and 'gold and lapis lazuli are fastened on the necks of slave-girls' sound like the plagues and the spoiling of Egypt, and the text is widely quoted as an Egyptian record of the Exodus. Most Egyptologists disagree: the language and content place the composition in the Middle Kingdom, centuries before any Exodus date, and it belongs to a known genre of 'national distress' literature. It remains a valuable window into how an Egyptian would describe a national collapse.
The Hebrew word: dahm
דָּם
דָּם is pronounced dahm and means blood; the first plague turned the Nile to blood (Strong's H1818).
People this discovery connects to
- Moses — מֹשֶׁה (moh-SHEH) — drawn out (Egyptian: 'born of')
Places
- Egypt — מִצְרַיִם (mits-RAH-yim) — Egypt
Events
The Ten Plagues · The spoiling of the Egyptians
Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) in Scripture
Genesis 12:10 First mention of Egypt in Scripture.
Exodus 7:20-21 The Nile turned to blood; Ipuwer's 'the river is blood' is the most-quoted parallel.
Exodus 12:35-36 Israel takes Egypt's silver and gold; Ipuwer laments that gold now hangs on the necks of servants.
Questions people ask
What is Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344)?
A damaged hieratic papyrus of 17 columns known as 'The Admonitions of Ipuwer'. A sage named Ipuwer describes Egypt turned upside down: the river is blood, servants have become rich, plague stalks the land, and the poor take the gold of the nobles.
When was Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) discovered?
It was found in 1828 by Sold by Giovanni Anastasi to the Dutch government; first fully edited by Alan Gardiner (1909), at Unknown (probably Saqqara/Memphis region).
Where is Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) today?
Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden (Papyrus Leiden I 344 recto).
Which Bible verses does Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) relate to?
Genesis 12:10, Exodus 7:20-21, Exodus 12:35-36.
Is Ipuwer Papyrus (Leiden I 344) authentic?
The papyrus is authentic. Its use as an Exodus record is rejected by most Egyptologists on grounds of date and genre; a minority (e.g., some who follow Velikovsky or David Rohl's revised chronology) still defend the connection.
Related discoveries
- סִבְלֹתPapyrus Leiden I 348 (Apiru hauling stone)'Apiru who drag stone for the great pylon of Ramesses'
- יְצִיאַת מִצְרַיִםThe Plagues and the Exodus: What Archaeology Has and Has Not FoundAn honest summary keyed to the eastern Delta evidence
- סִיןGabal Sin Bishar (Har-El's Mount Sinai)A low peak in western Sinai proposed by an Israeli geographer
- עֶבֶדSeal of Ushna, Servant of AhazA carnelian seal of a royal official of King Ahaz
- אֱדוֹםPapyrus Anastasi VIA border official lets Shasu of Edom through the fort to the pools of Pithom
- נִינְוֵהFall of Nineveh Chronicle (BM 21901)Babylonian record of the destruction of Assyria's capital in 612 BCE, as Nahum foretold
Sources
- Gardiner, The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage (1909)
- Wikipedia: Ipuwer Papyrus